Anyone trying to wrap their heads around concepts like "elite overproduction," credentialism, the decline of competence, and distrust in institutions needs to read this essay.
Reading classic Chinese historical novels like Three Kingdoms and Outlaws of the Marsh, a recurrent trope is that of the man who fails the imperial exam and becomes a bandit or warlord. There were many who wanted to be a part of the state but were locked out of the system by their own inability to pass the test, or those like Zhang Jue (who led the Yellow Turban Rebellion) who passed at the county level but who was denied further promotion. To the extent that this was a historical phenomenom and not just a literary conceit (e.g. Huang Chao and Hong Xiuquan both failed the test hundreds of years apart and led rebellions), it might be an argument against the idea that the examination system produced stability.
Very interesting! I wonder if this could be further buttressed by geographic analysis - were exams more likely to be a higher or lower proportion of civil servant entrants closer to the periphery of empire vs the heartlands, or on troublesome border areas vs peaceful ones?
Speaking as someone currently studying for the theory section of the Chinese driving test I can easily believe that the exams were testing for something other than knowledge or competence 😂
The Manchus may have been atypical in that they were a northern people that had conquered Han China. How would those numbers change for a Han Chinese dynasty?
“In short, the exam system wasn’t just a recruitment mechanism—it was an instrument of political reproduction. It ensured that each generation of elites would not only be literate, but loyal.”
So just like the US higher education system you’re a product of.
“Roughly 13% bought their way into office by making “contributions” to the state—cash, livestock, grain, and military supplies such as warships and camels—in exchange for academic credentials. Another 4% inherited eligibility from their fathers, thanks to a policy that awarded degrees to the sons of deceased or high-ranking officials. A small group—about 2%—got in through ad hoc channels like battlefield promotions or personal recommendations. Then there were the 23% who were Manchus. As the ruling ethnic group of the dynasty, Manchus were allowed to bypass the standard exam system entirely. They often entered the bureaucracy through parallel institutions or separate military-based evaluations.”
I’m guessing this is close to or identical to the percentage of donor (including full-fee foreigners), legacy, sports, and diversity admits in elite US colleges.
Fantastic bit of research. It shines an interesting light onto the mechanism that allows for powerful and consistent control to be exerted on such a geographically diverse and numerically massive populace.
From what I remember too one element of the Qing’s destabilisation in the 1800s had to do with a shortage of administrative postings to accommodate the rising number of Han exam graduates - and the consequent resentment of Manchu privilege in that area. Seems almost paradoxical that the exams were scrapped in the name of good government at the same time (1900s) as European bureaucracies were embracing them, but basically consistent with their role in reproducing an ideology which elites had completely lost confidence in.
Anyone trying to wrap their heads around concepts like "elite overproduction," credentialism, the decline of competence, and distrust in institutions needs to read this essay.
Good article here.
Reading classic Chinese historical novels like Three Kingdoms and Outlaws of the Marsh, a recurrent trope is that of the man who fails the imperial exam and becomes a bandit or warlord. There were many who wanted to be a part of the state but were locked out of the system by their own inability to pass the test, or those like Zhang Jue (who led the Yellow Turban Rebellion) who passed at the county level but who was denied further promotion. To the extent that this was a historical phenomenom and not just a literary conceit (e.g. Huang Chao and Hong Xiuquan both failed the test hundreds of years apart and led rebellions), it might be an argument against the idea that the examination system produced stability.
50% of selection was through meritocratic exams
In say Britain during the same period, what percentage of elite selection was done through something similar?
Very interesting! I wonder if this could be further buttressed by geographic analysis - were exams more likely to be a higher or lower proportion of civil servant entrants closer to the periphery of empire vs the heartlands, or on troublesome border areas vs peaceful ones?
Speaking as someone currently studying for the theory section of the Chinese driving test I can easily believe that the exams were testing for something other than knowledge or competence 😂
Very insightful essay. Thank you for this.
Fantastic piece: great use of history to speak to present-day concerns.
The Manchus may have been atypical in that they were a northern people that had conquered Han China. How would those numbers change for a Han Chinese dynasty?
“In short, the exam system wasn’t just a recruitment mechanism—it was an instrument of political reproduction. It ensured that each generation of elites would not only be literate, but loyal.”
So just like the US higher education system you’re a product of.
“Roughly 13% bought their way into office by making “contributions” to the state—cash, livestock, grain, and military supplies such as warships and camels—in exchange for academic credentials. Another 4% inherited eligibility from their fathers, thanks to a policy that awarded degrees to the sons of deceased or high-ranking officials. A small group—about 2%—got in through ad hoc channels like battlefield promotions or personal recommendations. Then there were the 23% who were Manchus. As the ruling ethnic group of the dynasty, Manchus were allowed to bypass the standard exam system entirely. They often entered the bureaucracy through parallel institutions or separate military-based evaluations.”
I’m guessing this is close to or identical to the percentage of donor (including full-fee foreigners), legacy, sports, and diversity admits in elite US colleges.
Also, n+1 wrote about this in 2012: https://www.nplusonemag.com/issue-14/the-intellectual-situation/death-by-degrees/
Could this be related to the existing form of government in china, or is it completely different?
Fantastic bit of research. It shines an interesting light onto the mechanism that allows for powerful and consistent control to be exerted on such a geographically diverse and numerically massive populace.
Fascinating and insightful.
From what I remember too one element of the Qing’s destabilisation in the 1800s had to do with a shortage of administrative postings to accommodate the rising number of Han exam graduates - and the consequent resentment of Manchu privilege in that area. Seems almost paradoxical that the exams were scrapped in the name of good government at the same time (1900s) as European bureaucracies were embracing them, but basically consistent with their role in reproducing an ideology which elites had completely lost confidence in.